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Siobhan K. O’Toole, Ph.D.
Corey J. Vitello, M.A.
Shelby Palmer, Ph.D.

Law enforcement is a stressful profession. Pressures related to the job itself, to external factors (such as public attitudes) and organizational stressors (such as bureaucracy) increase the levels of stress experienced by police officers (Brown & Campbell, 1994; Violanti & Aron, 1993). Stress is a major factor in officer transfers, early retirement, and career changes. One strategy to decrease officer turnover is to identify the factors that lead to increased stress in law enforcement agencies. Once the stress factors are identified, policy changes to eliminate the most troublesome aspects of policing can be implemented.

Over the past two decades, there has been a wealth of research concerning officer stress. The majority of research on police officer stress indicates that the occupation creates or contributes to psychological and physical ailments resulting in high incidents of cynicism, absenteeism, alcoholism, post traumatic stress disorder, burnout, early retirement, resignation from the force, and tragically, suicide (Anshel, 2000; Ayers & Flanagan, 1994; Beutler, Nussbaum, & Meredith, 1988; Brosnan, 1999; Burke, 1993; Golembiewski & Kim, 1990; Graves, 1996; Reviere & Young, 1994; Toch, 2002). Studies conducted on stress and law enforcement point to various categories of general stressors that are common to the profession. Researchers have categorized sources of police stress into groupings that include external stressors, organizational stressors, and task-related stressors, which negatively affect the performance and job satisfaction of officers (Brown & Campbell, 1994; Violanti & Aron, 1993).

The external stressors officers face include frustration with the courts, negative portrayal by the media, and disparaging public attitudes (Brown & Campbell 1994). Task-related stress is due to the nature of the job. Duties required of law enforcement officers, such as delivering notice of a death or being shot at while on the job are stressful events unique to being a police officer (Brown & Campbell, 1994). Organizational issues have been identified as the most common source of police work stress (Brown, Fielding & Grover, 1999; Violanti & Aron, 1993). Previous research indicates that the sources of organizational stress include poor pay; excessive paperwork; inadequate training and equipment; changing shifts; limited promotional opportunities; unfair policies; and lack of administrative support (Brown & Campbell, 1994; Violanti & Aron, 1993.)

The general literature regarding the self-reported sources of police officer stress is ample and comprehensive. Likewise, the literature concerning the source of minority and women officers’ stress is largely as extensive. However, the literature focusing specifically on members of these groups who actually resign from the police force due to the factors identified by the decades of stress research is deficient. Therefore, in order to fill this gap in the research, the authors assessed officer stress generally, while specifically investigating the relationship between both minority and women officers’ stress in correlation to their eventual resignation from the police force.

The intent of this study was to examine stress within a nationwide sample of police agencies. The type of stressors common to an agency and the level of stress were measured with the Police Stress Survey by Spielberger, Westberry, Grier and Greenfield (1981). The Police Stress Survey is a sixty-measure item that examines police stress in relation to organizational/administrative pressures, outside pressures, factors related to the inherent danger on the job and pressures from job duties. In cooperation with 22 police agencies across the United States, officers who had left their position on a police force for any reason were asked to complete the survey along with a demographic questionnaire. Participation was voluntary and confidential. Below are the preliminary results of this project.

The number of agencies nationwide who cooperated in this project was sixteen, a smaller number than initially expressed interest and smaller than anticipated. Further, although many agencies cooperated fully and sent out the surveys to their officers who had left the department, this project relied on the willingness of ex-officers to take a few moments to respond to the survey and expeditiously mail them back to the University. For many agencies, especially those agencies with smaller attrition rates than those seen in larger metropolitan areas, the participation by the ex-officers was low. That said, however, the project did indeed produce outcomes that are useful for law enforcement managers.

Generally, the results of this study were consistent with those obtained from similar projects initiated by other researchers in the field of police officer stress. For officers who had left the department, the researchers found three distinct, significant and consistent themes in responses to the police stress survey: (1) physical threats was the most noted stressor among officers; (2) the second most perceived stressor included a general lack of support experienced by officers; and (3) the third most noted stressor involved perceptions of organizational pressure. Examples of physical threats seen as highly stressful for most officers included having to participate in high-speed chases, responding to a felony in progress, and being physically attacked. Lack of support stressors include inadequate support by supervisors, inadequate support by the department, and strained relationships with non-police friends. Finally, examples of organizational pressure included political pressure from outside of the department, disagreeable department regulations and the perceived ineffectiveness of the judicial system. Surprisingly, although responders indicated that organizational pressure was the third ranked cause of police stress, this type of stress is ranked number one as to why most officers leave the department.

Some other interesting general findings include the lack of influence education has on all three types of stressors; that is, the threat of physical violence, the lack of departmental support, and the presence of organization pressure creates stress for all officers, regardless of officers’ education level. Alternatively, age plays a role in the amount of stress experienced by officers. Findings suggest that the younger the officers, the greater their perceptions of all three forms of stress. Experience on the job appears to have a beneficial effect on officers concerning stress. For instance, findings suggest that the longer an officer has been on the force, the less likely they are to experience stress from both a perception of organization pressure and of a lack of departmental support. However, regardless of time on the job, the stress incurred from threats of physical harm is equally as disturbing to all ranks and classes of officers.

The Police Stress Survey is an instrument meant to measure nearly 60 types of stressful situations, events, and occupational demands inherent to the duties of police officers. Recall that the participants were officers who had left a nationwide sample of police agencies over the past five years. The results of this project indicate that seven specific stressors standout as directly contributing to the decision of these officers to leave their departments. The most often cited reason was, "Inadequate support by supervisor" (25%) followed in succession by, "Inadequate support by department" (22%), "Political pressure from within the department" (18%), "Poor or inadequate supervision" (15%), "Inadequate salary" and "Difficulty getting along with supervisors" (11%-tie), and finally, "Excessive paperwork" (10%). Even though police work is very dangerous, more often, it seems, officers encounter stress and decide to leave the force because of organizational issues.

Anshel, M. H. (2000). A conceptual model and implications for coping with stressful events in police work. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27(3), 375-400.

Ayers, R., & Flanagan, G. (1994). Preventing law enforcement stress: The organization’s role. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

Beutler, L. E., Nussbaum, P. D., & Meredith, K. E. (1988). Changing personality patterns of police officers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(5), 503-507.

Brosnan, M. W. (1999). Post traumatic stress disorder and the police officer. Women

Police, 33(4), 5, 26-36.

Brown, J., & Campbell, E. (1994). Stress and policing. New York: Wiley.

Brown, J. Fielding, J. & Grover, J. (1999). Distinguishing traumatic, vicarious and routine operational stressor exposure and attendant adverse consequences in a sample of police officers. Work and Stress, 13, 312-325.

Burke, R. J. (1993). Work-family stress, conflict, coping, and burnout in police officers.

Stress Medicine, 9, 171-180.

Golenbiewski, R. T., & Kim, B. (1990). Burnout in police work: Stressors, strain, and the phase model. Police Studies, 13(2), 74-80.

Graves, W. (1996). Police cynicism: Causes and cures. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin,

65 (6), 16-20.

Reviere, R., & Young, V. D. (1994). Mortality of police officers: Comparisons by length

of time on the force. American Journal of Police, 13(1), 51-75.

Toch, H. (2002). Stress in Policing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Violanti, J., & Aron, F. (1993). Sources of police stressors, job attitudes and psychological distress. Psychological Reports, 72, 899-904.